Ayn Rand

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For criticism see Criticism of Ayn_Rand
Ayn Rand
File:Ayn Rand1.jpg
Ayn Rand
Born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum
February 2 1905(1905-02-02)
Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Died March 6 1982 (aged 77)
New York City, United States
Occupation Philosopher, writer
Alma mater University of Petrograd
Notable work(s) The Fountainhead
Atlas Shrugged
Spouse(s) Frank O'Connor (m. 1929)
Influences
Influenced
Signature File:Sign Ayn Rand.png

Ayn Rand (Template:IPA-en; born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum; February 2 [O.S. January 20] 1905 – March 6, 1982), was a Russian-American novelist, philosopher,[1] playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels and for developing a philosophical system she called Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, Rand emigrated to the United States in 1926. She worked as a screenwriter in Hollywood and had a play produced on Broadway in 1935-1936. She first achieved fame with her novel The Fountainhead, published in 1943,[2] which in 1957 was followed by her best-known work, the philosophical novel Atlas Shrugged.

Rand's political views, reflected in both her fiction and her theoretical work, emphasize individual rights (including property rights) and laissez-faire capitalism, enforced by a constitutionally-limited government. She was a fierce opponent of all forms of collectivism and statism,[3][4] including fascism, communism, and the welfare state,[5] and promoted ethical egoism while condemning altruism.[6] She considered reason to be the only means of acquiring knowledge and the most important aspect of her philosophy,[7] stating, "I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."[8]

Contents

Life and work

Early life

Rand was born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Russian: Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум) in 1905, into a middle-class family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of the three daughters (Alisa, Natasha, and Nora) of Zinovy Zacharovich Rosenbaum and Anna Borisovna Rosenbaum, largely non-observant Jews. Her father was a chemist and a successful pharmaceutical entrepreneur.[9]

Rand was twelve at the time of the Russian revolution of 1917. Opposed to the Tsar, Rand's sympathies were with Alexander Kerensky. Rand's family life was disrupted by the rise of the Bolshevik party. Her father's pharmacy was confiscated by the Soviets, and the family temporarily fled to the Crimea. At sixteen, Rand returned with her family to Saint Petersburg.[10]

File:Twelvecollegia.jpg
Rand completed a three-year program in the department of social pedagogy at the University of Petrograd.

She enrolled at the University of Petrograd, where she studied in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history.[11] At university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato, who would form two of the greatest influences and counter-influences respectively on her thought.[11][12] A third figure whose philosophical works she studied heavily was Friedrich Nietzsche.[13] Her formal study of philosophy amounted to only a few courses, and outside of these three philosophers, her study of key figures was limited to excerpts and summaries.[14] Of the writers she read at this time, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, Friedrich Schiller, and Fyodor Dostoevsky became her perennial favorites.[15] As a "non-proletarian," Rand was "purged" from the university shortly before completing. However, bowing to pressure from foreign intellectuals, the communists relented and allowed many of the expelled students to complete their work and graduate,[16] which Rand did in 1924.[11] She subsequently studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts.[17]

In late 1925, she was granted a visa to visit American relatives. She arrived in the United States on February 19, 1926,[18] entering by ship through New York City. After a brief stay with her relatives in Chicago, she resolved never to return to the Soviet Union, and set out for Hollywood to become a screenwriter. While still in Russia she had decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand,[19] possibly as a Cyrillic contraction of her birth surname,[20] and she adopted the first name Ayn (rhymes with fine) from a Finnish name.[21] Initially, she struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to a job as an extra in his film, The King of Kings, and to subsequent work as a junior screenwriter.[22] While working on The King of Kings, she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor, who caught her eye. The two married on April 15, 1929. Rand became an American citizen in 1931. Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, for a time Rand worked as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios.[23]

Early fiction

Main articles: Night of January 16th, We the Living, and Anthem (novella)
Cover of Rand's first book, a 2,500-word monograph on the Polish femme fatale Pola Negri published in 1925.[24]

Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn in 1932 to Universal Studios. Josef Von Sternberg considered it for Marlene Dietrich, but anti-Soviet themes were unpopular at the time, and the project came to nothing.[25] This was followed by the courtroom drama Night of January 16th, first produced in Hollywood in 1934, and then successfully reopened on Broadway in 1935. Each night the "jury" was selected from members of the audience, and one of the two different endings, depending on the jury's "verdict," would then be performed.[26] In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie version of the play. She did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.[27]

Her first novel, the semi-autobiographical We the Living, was published in 1936 by Macmillan. Set in Communist Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In the foreword to the novel, Rand stated that We the Living "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not..."[28] Without Rand's knowledge or permission, We the Living was made into a pair of films, Noi vivi and Addio, Kira in Italy in 1942. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as We the Living in 1986.[29]

The novella Anthem was published in England in 1938 and in America seven years later. It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word "I" has vanished from the language and from humanity's memory.

The Fountainhead and political activism

See also: The Fountainhead and The Fountainhead (film)

During the 1940s, Rand became involved in political activism. Both she and her husband worked full time in volunteer positions for the 1940 Presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences, including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from the audience "following pro-Willkie newsreels at a Union square movie theater" in New York City, an experience she greatly enjoyed.[30] This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Both men expressed an admiration for Rand, and despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career.[31]

Rand's first major success as a writer came with The Fountainhead in 1943, a romantic drama and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years.[32] The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark, and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers" — those who attempt to live through others, placing others above self. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it.[33] The Fountainhead eventually became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. According to the Ayn Rand Institute, by April 2008 the novel had sold over 6.5 million copies.[34]

In 1943, Rand returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay for a film version of The Fountainhead for Warner Brothers, and the following year she and her husband purchased a home designed by modernist Richard Neutra and an adjoining ranch. There, Rand entertained figures such as Hazlitt, Morrie Ryskind, Janet Gaynor, Gilbert Adrian and Leonard Read. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer Hal Wallis as a screenwriter and script-doctor, and her work for Wallis included the Oscar-nominated Love Letters and You Came Along, along with research for a screenplay based on the development of the atomic bomb.[35] This role gave Rand time to work on other projects, including the publication of her first work of non-fiction, an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow," in the January 1944 edition of Reader's Digest magazine.[36] During this period Rand also outlined and took extensive notes for a non-fiction treatment of her philosophy.[37]

During this period Rand developed a relationship with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. The two women became friends and philosophical sparring-partners, and Rand is reported to have questioned the well-informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings. Later, the two women had a falling out after what Rand saw as Paterson's bitter and insensitive comments during one of her Hollywood parties. Paterson's influence on Rand's later political theories has been a matter of ongoing debate, but Paterson biographer Stephen D. Cox credits Rand's public advocacy with keeping her old friend's political work The God of the Machine in print for many years, despite their previous break.[38]

In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee. Her testimony regarded the disparity between her personal experiences in the Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film Song of Russia.[39] Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union and portrayed life in the USSR as being much better and happier than it actually was.[40] When asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations after the hearings, Rand described the process as "futile".[41]

The movie version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end," complaining about its editing, acting and other elements.[42]

Atlas Shrugged and later years

Objectivist movement
A statute of the Greek god Atlas, the inspiration for the novel Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand which was a catalyst for the Objectivist movement
Philosophy
Organizations
Theorists
Literature
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Main articles: Atlas Shrugged and Objectivist movement

After the publication of The Fountainhead, Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom had been profoundly influenced by the novel. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged, as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the much younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.[43]

Atlas Shrugged, published in 1957, was Rand's magnum opus.[44] The theme of the novel is "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest."[45] It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists and artists go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery and science fiction,[46] and contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction, a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller. Rand's last work of fiction, it marked a turning point in her life, ending her career as novelist and beginning her tenure as a popular philosopher.[47]

In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her non-fiction works and by giving talks, for example at Yale University, Princeton University, Columbia University,[48] Harvard University and MIT.[49] She received an honorary doctorate from Lewis & Clark College in 1963.[50] For many years, she gave also an annual lecture at the Ford Hall Forum, responding afterwards in her famously spirited form to questions from the audience.[51] In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden hid the affair from Rand. Though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended,[52] Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens in 1968 when she discovered Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott and his and Barbara Branden's role in concealing it, and as a result, NBI closed.[53] She published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life."[54]

Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974. Several more of her closest "Collective" friends parted company with her,[55] and during the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979.[56] One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged. She had also planned to write another novel, but did not get far in her notes.[57] Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982 at her home in New York City,[58] and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York. Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including Alan Greenspan. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.[59] In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff the heir to her estate. With her endorsement of his 1976 lecture series, she had recognized his work as being the best exposition of her philosophy.[60]

Philosophy

Main articles: Objectivism (Ayn Rand) and Objectivist theory of value

Rand saw her views as constituting an integrated philosophical system, which she called "Objectivism." The essence of Objectivism, according to Rand, is "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."[61]

Rejecting faith as antithetical to reason, Rand opposed any form of mysticism or supernaturalism, including organized religion, and she embraced philosophical realism.[62] Rand also argued for rational egoism (rational self-interest), as the only proper guiding moral principle. The individual "must exist for his own sake," she wrote in 1962, "neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself."[63] In 1976, she said that her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, [her] ethics, and [her] discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force."[64]

Rand held that the only moral social system is laissez-faire capitalism. Her political views were strongly individualist and hence anti-statist and anti-Communist. Rand detested many liberal and conservative politicians of her time, including prominent anti-Communists.[65][66] Jim Powell, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute, considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson) of modern American libertarianism,[67] although she rejected libertarianism and the libertarian movement. Rand rejected anarcho-capitalism as "a contradiction in terms", a point on which she has been criticized by self-avowed anarchist Objectivists such as Roy Childs.[68] Philosopher Chandran Kukathas said her "unremitting hostility towards the state and taxation sits inconsistently with a rejection of anarchism, and her attempts to resolve the difficulty are ill-thought out and unsystematic."[69]

She acknowledged Aristotle as a great influence,[70] and found early inspiration in Friedrich Nietzsche,[71] although she later rejected his approach, holding it to be anti-reason. She remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's" —Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand.[14] Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was Immanuel Kant, whom she referred to as a "monster" and "the most evil man in history".[72] Rand was strongly opposed to the view she ascribed to Kant that reason is unable to know reality "as it is in itself."[72] She considered her philosophy to be the "exact opposite" of Kant's on "every fundamental issue".[72] Objectivist philosophers George Walsh[73] and Fred Seddon[74] have both argued that Rand misinterpreted Kant. In particular, Walsh argues that both philosophers adhere to many of the same basic positions, and that Rand exaggerated her differences with Kant. Walsh says that for many critics, Rand's writing on Kant is "ignorant and unworthy of discussion".[73]

Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas Rasmussen describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional," while stressing the importance and originality of her thought.[75] Similarly, philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage," he considers Rand's ethics to be "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought."[76]

Continued at Ayn Rand part 2

Notes

  1. ^ The following sources identify Rand as a philosopher:
    • Saxon, Wolfgang (March 7, 1982). "Ayn Rand, ‘Fountainhead’ Author, Dies". The New York Times: p. 36. http://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/07/obituaries/07randobit.html?&pagewanted=all. "Ayn Rand, the writer and philosopher of objectivism who espoused 'rational selfishness' and capitalism unbound, died yesterday morning at her home on East 34th Street." 
    • Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Preface." in Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. x. "...this book is devoted to an assessment of Ayn Rand the philosopher. All the contributors to this volume agree that she is a philosopher and not a mere popularizer. Moreover, all agree that many of her insights on philosophy and her own philosophic ideas deserve critical attention by professional philosophers, whatever the final merit of those inquiries and theories. It is appropriate, therefore, that all our contributors are themselves professional philosophers."
    • Sciabarra 1995, p. 1. "Ayn Rand is one of the most widely read philosophers of the twentieth century."
    • Kukathas, Chandran (1998). "Rand, Ayn (1905–82)", in Craig, Edward: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Routledge, 55–56. ISBN 0-415-07310-3. “Ayn Rand was a Russian-born novelist and philosopher who exerted considerable influence in the conservative and libertarian intellectual movements in the post-war USA.” 
    • Machan, Tibor R. (2000). Ayn Rand, Masterworks in the Western Tradition. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 4-5, 27. ISBN 0-8204-4144-9. 
    • Smith, Tara (2007). Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 5-6. ISBN 0-521-70546-0. 
    • Pisaturo, Ronald (2009). "Past Longevity as Evidence for the Future". Philosophy of Science 76: 73–100. DOI:10.1086/599273. “I would like to ... acknowledge Ayn Rand, whose identification of characteristics as ranges of measurement ([1966] 1990, 6-11) gave me a philosophical foundation for exploring the topic of this paper.” 
  2. ^ Beetz, Kirk (1996). Beacham's Encyclopedia of Popular Fiction. Osprey, Florida: Beacham Pub. ISBN 0-933833-41-5. 
  3. ^ Rand, Ayn (January 1944). "The Only Path to Tomorrow". Reader’s Digest. “Collectivism means the subjugation of the individual to a group — whether to a race, class or state does not matter. Collectivism holds that man must be chained to collective action and collective thought for the sake of what is called 'the common good.'” 
  4. ^ Rand, Ayn (1964). "Racism", The Virtue of Selfishness. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-451-16393-1. “Collectivism holds that the individual has no rights, that his life and work belong to the group … and that the group may sacrifice him at its own whim to its own interests. The only way to implement a doctrine of that kind is by means of brute force — and statism has always been the political corollary of collectivism.” 
  5. ^ Rand, Ayn (1967). ""Extremism," or The Art of Smearing", Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. New York: Signet. ISBN 0-451-14795-2. OCLC 24916193. “It is too easy, too demonstrable that fascism and communism are not two opposites, but two rival gangs fighting over the same territory — that both are variants of statism....” 
  6. ^ Rand, Ayn (1964). "Introduction", The Virtue of Selfishness. New York: Signet. ISBN 0-451-16393-1. “[T]he doctrine that concern with one’s own interests is evil means that man's desire to live is evil — that man's life, as such, is evil. No doctrine could be more evil than that. Yet that is the meaning of altruism... .” 
  7. ^ Rand, Ayn (1999). "The Left: Old and New", Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution, Edited by Peter Schwartz, New York: Meridian. ISBN 0-452-01184-1. “Reason is man’s only means of grasping reality and of acquiring knowledge — and, therefore, the rejection of reason means that men should act regardless of and/or in contradiction to the facts of reality.” 
  8. ^ Rand, Ayn (September 1971). "Brief Summary". The Objectivist 10 (9). 
  9. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 2-3
  10. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 14-20
  11. ^ a b c Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (Fall 1999). "The Rand Transcript"". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 1 (1): 1-26. 
  12. ^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 451-460
  13. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 17-18, 22-24
  14. ^ a b Sciabarra 1995, p. 12
  15. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 17, 22
  16. ^ Britting 2004, p. 24
  17. ^ (1999) "Introduction", Russian Writings on Hollywood, Ayn Rand, trans. by Dina Garmong, Los Angeles: Ayn Rand Institute Press. ISBN 0-9625336-3-7. 
  18. ^ Britting 2004, p. 30
  19. ^ Britting 2004, p. 33
  20. ^ "What is the origin of “Rand”?". Ayn Rand Institute. http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=faq_index#ar_q3b. Retrieved on 2009-07-25. 
  21. ^ Rand 1995, p. 40
  22. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 34-36.
  23. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 35-40; Paxton 1998, pp. 74, 81, 84.
  24. ^ Berliner, Michael S. (March 1999). "Ayn Rand's first published work found". Archives Annual 2 (3). 
  25. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 40, 42.
  26. ^ Rand 1971, pp. 3-11
  27. ^ Johnson, Donald Leslie (2005). The Fountainheads: Wright, Rand, the FBI and Hollywood. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 55-56. ISBN 0-7864-1958-X.  cf. Rand 1971, pp. 13-14
  28. ^ Rand, Ayn [1936] (1995). "Foreword", We The Living, 60th Anniversary, New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-94054-5. 
  29. ^ Paxton 1998, p. 104
  30. ^ Britting 2004, p. 57
  31. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 188-189
  32. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 61-78
  33. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 58-61
  34. ^ "Sales of Ayn Rand Books Reach 25 million Copies". Ayn Rand Institute. April 7, 2008. http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=17345&news_iv_ctrl=1221. Retrieved on 2009-07-31. 
  35. ^ Britting 2004, pp. 68-80; Branden 1986, pp. 183-198
  36. ^ Reprinted in Rand, Ayn (1991). The Ayn Rand Column. Oceanside, California: Second Renaissance Books, 105–108. ISBN 1-56114-099-6. 
  37. ^ Rand 1997, pp. 243–310
  38. ^ Cox, Stephen (2004). The Woman and the Dynamo. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction, 218-222, 287-289, 302-314 and 357-359. ISBN 0-7658-0241-4. 
  39. ^ Mayhew 2005, pp. 91-93
  40. ^ "Ayn Rand's HUAC Testimony" in Mayhew 2005, pp. 188-189
  41. ^ Mayhew 2005, p. 83
  42. ^ Britting 2004, p. 71
  43. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 256–264, 331–343
  44. ^ Rand 1997, p. 704 "Atlas Shrugged was the climax and completion of the goal I had set for myself at the age of nine. It expressed everything that I wanted of fiction writing."
  45. ^ Rand, Ayn (1961). For the New Intellectual. New York: Random House. 
  46. ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 42
  47. ^ Younkins, Edward (2007). "Preface", Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-5549-0. “Atlas Shrugged … is the demarcation work and turning point that culminated [Rand's] career as a novelist and propelled her into a career as a popular philosopher” .
  48. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 315-316
  49. ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 14
  50. ^ Branden 1986, p. 318
  51. ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 16
  52. ^ Britting 2004, p. 101.
  53. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 344-358
  54. ^ Rand, Ayn (May 1968). "To Whom It May Concern". The Objectivist 7 (5): 1–8. 
  55. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 386-389
  56. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 392-395
  57. ^ Rand 1997, p. 697
  58. ^ Saxon, Wolfgang (March 7, 1982). "Ayn Rand, ‘Fountainhead’ Author, Dies". The New York Times: p. 36. http://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/07/obituaries/07randobit.html?&pagewanted=all. 
  59. ^ Branden 1986, p. 403
  60. ^ Peikoff 1991, pp. xiii-xv
  61. ^ "About the Author" in Rand 1992, pp. 1170-1171.
  62. ^ Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism" in Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, pp. 3-20
  63. ^ Rand, Ayn (1989). "Introducing Objectivism", The Voice of Reason, Edited by Leonard Peikoff, New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-453-00634-5.  This article originally appeared in the Los Angeles Times on June 17, 1962.
  64. ^ Rand, Ayn (2005). Ayn Rand Answers, the Best of Her Q&A. New York: New American Library. ISBN 0-451-21665-2. 
  65. ^ Toffler, Alivin (March 1964). "Playboy Interview: Ayn Rand". Playboy. http://www.playboy.com/articles/ayn-rand-playboy-interview/index.html. "I'm opposed to any compromiser or me-tooer, and Mr. Nixon is probably the champion in this regard." 
  66. ^ Dowd, Maureen (September 13, 1982). "Where 'Atlas Shrugged' Is Still Read - Forthrightly". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/13/weekinreview/where-atlas-shrugged-is-still-read-forthrightly.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved on 2009-08-01. "Miss Rand was vehemently anti-Reagan when he challenged Gerald Ford in 1976, and her disciples never saw much sign that she softened toward him over the years." 
  67. ^ Powell, Jim (May 1996). "Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement". The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty 46 (5). 
  68. ^ Thomas, William R. (2008). "Objectivism against Anarchy", Anarchism/Minarchism. Aldershot: Ashgate, 39-57. ISBN 0-7546-6066-4. 
  69. ^ Kukathas, Chandran (1998). "Rand, Ayn (1905–82)", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Routledge, 55–56. ISBN 0-415-07310-3. 
  70. ^ "About the Author" in Rand 1992, p. 1171.
  71. ^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 100–106
  72. ^ a b c Rand, Ayn (September 1971). "Brief Summary". The Objectivist 10 (9). 
  73. ^ a b Walsh, George V. (Fall 2000). "Ayn Rand and the Metaphysics of Kant". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 2 (1): 69-103. 
  74. ^ Seddon, Fred (2003). Ayn Rand, Objectivists, and the History of Philosophy. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 63-81. ISBN 0-7618-2308-5. 
  75. ^ (April 1978) "Nozick On the Randian Argument". The Personalist 59. 
  76. ^ Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle." in Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. 96.

References

Further reading

For a comprehensive listing, see Bibliography for Ayn Rand and Objectivism

External links


v • d • e
Ayn Rand
Bibliography
Novels
We the Living (1936) · Anthem (1938) · The Fountainhead (1943) · Atlas Shrugged (1957)
Non-fiction books
Screenplays
Red Pawn (1932) · Love Letters (1945) · You Came Along (1945) · The Fountainhead (film) (1949)
Essay collections
Other
Philosophy
Biographical depictions
Wikisource · Wikimedia Commons · Wikiquote
Persondata
NAME Rand, Ayn
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Rosenbaum, Alisa Zinov'yevna; Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум (Russian)
SHORT DESCRIPTION novelist, philosopher, playwright, screenwriter
DATE OF BIRTH February 2, 1905
PLACE OF BIRTH Saint Petersburg, Russia
DATE OF DEATH March 6, 1982
PLACE OF DEATH New York City
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