Classical definition of republic/References

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These references pertain also to Philosophy of mixed government as one work.

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Footnotes

(Note: It is encouraged that if you have corraborating evidence, facts, works by others please add them as sumplementary footnotes by adding ## under the primary reference.)

  1. Republic—A form of government by the people that includes the rule of law, a mixed constitution, and the cultivation of an active and public-spirited citizenry. Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal, editors: Terence Ball and Richard Dagger, 2nd ed, HarperCollins College Publishers, l995. pg 267.
    1. Mixed constitution (or government)—The republican policy of combining or balancing rule by one, by the few, and by the many in a single government, with the aim of preventing the concentration of power in any person or social group. Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal, pg 265.
    2. "A mixed government, a virtous citizenry, the rule of law,--these were the republican ideals of Machiavelli's Discourses. If much of this sounds familiar, it is because this vision inspired the Atlantic Republican tradition--a way of thinking about politics that spread from Italy to Great Britain in the seventeenth century, and from there to Britain's American colonies in the eighteenth." Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal, pg 33.
    3. Classical republicanism emphasized civic duty and social cohesion. Founders and the Classics, Carl J. Richard, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994. pg 3.
    4. Sir Thomas Smyth in his treatise on English government of his time defined all commonwealths (republics) as mixed. De Republica Anglorum, 1583. ch. 6.
  2. Prof. Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn writes that "...the classical and scientific meaning of that word remained unchanged for 2300 years,...(pg 2) The decline of classical education in favor of progressive 'self-realization' has favored the increased use of wrong labels (pg 7)." Menace of the Herd, 1943. For more clarification see: User talk:WHEELER/Confusion over term republic.
    1. "Similarly, in Capitalism and a New Social Order (1984) and Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination (1992), Appleby argues that American ideology during the Revolutionary and Constitutional eras combined classical and liberal elements...Appleby writes concerning this shift from classical republicanism to liberalism:..." Founders and the Classics, Richard, pg 3.
    2. Carl J. Richard writes, "The neat dichotomy between classical republicanism and liberalism also masks the notorious inconsistency of humans, who have always proven quite capable of holding contradictory views simultaneously. The founders wandered the unmarked borderlands between classical republicansim and liberalism, scavenging for building materials." Founders and the Classics, pg 6. For more clarification see: Principles of definition.
  3. Politics, Aristotle, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1932. Bk III iv 1; 1278b 5-10; pg 201
  4. Politics, Bk III v 2f; 1279a 30-35; pg 207.
  5. Politics, Bk II i 4; 1261a 20; pp 71-73.
    1. Plato talks of keeping the classes seperate whereas they seek to combine creating one class of all. Republic, Jowett translation. §434; paperback 149.
  6. Politics, Aristotle, trans. H. Rackman, Loeb Classical Library. Vol. #264. bk II iii 10; 1265b 30-35; pg 107.
  7. Politics, Bk IV x 4; 1297a 5-10; pg 339.
  8. Politics, Bk II iii 9; 1265b 25; pg 105
  9. Politics, Bk IV vi 2; 1293b 30-35; pg 315
  10. The Portable Greek Historians: The Essence of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, edited by M. I. Finley, The Viking Press, NY, NY, l959. Polybius bk VI sec 3; Pg 475
  11. The Lives, Plutarch, trans by John Dryden, rev. by Arthur Clough, The Modern Library, NY. pg 52.
    1. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Karl Otfried Müller, trans. fr. the German by Henry Tufnell, ESQ. & Georg Cornewall Lewis, ESQ., A.M., publisher: John Murray, London, 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol I, pp 35, 152, 236; Vol II, pp 13, 14
    2. "For Crete as the locus for the first Greek politiea, see Arist. F611.14 (Rose) and Heraclid. Pont. Pol. 3.1-2 (M?FHG II 211)." Republics Ancient and Modern, Paul A. Rahe, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1994. Vol. I pg 289, (n.123).
  12. The Portable Greek Historians, Pg 482
  13. The Portable Greek Historians, Bk V sec. 48; Pg 493
  14. Government By the People; The Dynamics of American National, State, and Local Government, James MacGregor Burns and Jack Walter Peltson, Sixth edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1963. pg 50:
  15. The Collected Dialogues of Plato, edited by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, Bollingen Series LXXI, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, l961. The Laws, 712d and following.
  16. Freedom of Speech in Antiquity, Arnaldo Momigliano, as published in Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. by Philip P. Wiener, Charles Scribner's Sons, NY, l973. Vol II, pg 257.
  17. Cicero, On Government, trans. Michael Grant, Penguin Books, NY, l993. Pg 7 (in the footnote)
  18. Cicero, On Government, On Laws III 14-15; Pg 200.
  19. Cicero, On Government, Pgs 199-200.
  20. Cicero, On Government, On the State 23-4, pg 180.
  21. Politics, Bk III, xi3-5; 1287a; Pgs 263-265.
  22. Politics, Bk V. iv 6; 1305a 30-35; pg 401.
  23. Liberty or Equality, Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Christendom Press, pg 123.
  24. The Story of American Democracy, Political and Industrial, Willis Mason West, Allyn and Bacon, NY, l922. pg 74-80; specially pg 76.
  25. The Story of American Democracy, pg 276-277.
  26. The Story of American Democracy, pg 278.
  27. The Story of American Democracy, pg 276.
  28. The Federal Union, A History of the United States to 1865, John D. Hicks, Houghton Mifflin Co., NY, l948. pg 199.
  29. Madison, Federalist Papers No. 39.
  30. Padeia, The Ideals of Greek Culture, Werner Jaeger, translated by Gilbert Highet, Oxford University Press, NY, l944. Vol III, pg 236. References to Plato's Laws 693d-e
    1. "In the passage that follows, the United States Army Military Manual (published in 1928 and in use for the suceeding four years {TM 2000-25}) strongly contrasts the three forms of government: autocracy, democracy, and "representative government—the American experiment", describing the last as 'the golden mean between autocracy and democracy'". Menace of the Herd, Von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Bruce Publishing Co., 1943. pg 11.
  31. Paideia, Vol III, pg 284
  32. Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers, Marshall Davies Lloyd.
  33. Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pp 98f
  34. Libery or Equality, pg 162, 238, 248.
  35. The United States to 1865, Michael Kraus, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI. pg 259-260.
  36. Liberty or Equality, pg 326; see De ecclesiastica monarchia also see De summo pontifice, i,3
  37. Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism, J. Salwyn Schapiro, McGraw-Hill Book Co, Inc., NY, l949. pg 39.
  38. The Histories, Xenophon, trans. by Robin Waterfield, Oxford University Press, NY, l998. Bk VII, sec 104; pg 440.
  39. Rep. II. 23, Cicero, as quoted in The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Karl Otfried Müller, 2nd ed. rev. 1839. pg 190. (in footnote)
    1. "At the same time, however, Lacedæmonia was a republic." Rahe, Paul A., Republics; Ancient and Modern, Vol. I, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1992. pg 169.
    2. "Sparta was neither a monarchy or democracy...The most subtle of the ancient authors described it as a mixed regime...In order to secure the consent of the governed, Sparta ensured the participation of every element of the citizen population in the administration of the city". Republics Ancient and Modern", Rahe, Vol. I, pg 152.
    3. "Lacedæmonia was, in fact, a mixed regime—an uneasy compromise between competing principles...". Republics Ancient and Modern, Rahe, Vol. I, pg 170.
  40. Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal, editors: Terence Ball and Richard Dagger, 2nd ed, HarperCollins College Publishers, l995. pp 265 & 267
  41. Elements of Socialism, John Spargo, MacMillan Co., NY, 1912. pg 340.
  42. A View of the Constitution of the United States of America by William Rawle, LL.D., 1825; Secession as Taught at West Point Military Academy, edited by Walter D. Kennedy and James R. Kennedy, Land and Land Publishing Division, LO; and by Old South Books, LO, 1993. pg 46
  43. Republics and Democracies, "The New American", June 30, 1986.
    1. Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers by Marshall Davies Lloyd who references Livy as the real source of this.
  44. Athenian Constitution, Aristotle, trans. by. H. Rackman, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, l992. Vol #285, VII 1-XI 1; pg 27-31.
  45. Athenian Constitution, Loeb, Vol #285, XXIII,XXV; pp 71, 75.
  46. Hitler and the Vatican, Inside the Secret Archives That Reveal the New Story of the Nazis and The Church, Peter Godman, Free Press, NY, 2004. pg 129
  47. The Federalist Papers, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Arlington House (Classics of Conservatism Collection), New Rochelle, NY. No. 6:Hamilton; pg 57.
  48. The Federalist Papers, No. 9:Hamilton; pg 74.
  49. The Federalist Papers, No. 25:Hamilton; pg 167.
  50. Christianity and Classical Culture; A Study of Thought and Action from Augustus to Augustine, Charles Norris Cochrane, Oxford University Press, NY, 1940. pg 91.
  51. Plutarch: The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, trans. by John Dryden and revised by Arthur Hugh Clough, The Modern Library (div of Random House, Inc). Bio on Solon; pg 104.
  52. Plutarch: The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, trans. by John Dryden and revised by Arthur Hugh Clough, The Modern Library (div of Random House, Inc). Bio on Numa Pompilius; pp 74-75.
  53. Classics in the Nineteenth Century: Responses to George Grote, editor Kyriakos N. Demetriou, Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol, England 2003. 'Introduction'; pp. v- li.
  54. Plutarch: The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, trans. by John Dryden and revised by Arthur Hugh Clough, The Modern Library (div of Random House, Inc). Bio on Dion; pg 1183.
  55. Plutarch: The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, trans. by John Dryden and revised by Arthur Hugh Clough, The Modern Library (div of Random House, Inc). Bio on Agesilaus II; pg 714
  56. Plutarch: The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, trans. by John Dryden and revised by Arthur Hugh Clough, The Modern Library (div of Random House, Inc). Bio on Lycurgus; pg 53.
  57. "Political Thought" by A. E. Zimmern, The Legacy of Greece, edited by R. W. Livingstone, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, England, 1924. pp 323-324.
    1. Oxford English Dictionary, under "commonweal".
    2. Cicero's De respublica has been titled On the Commonwealth in English.
    3. Sir Thomas Smyth titled his book De Republica Anglorum but used the word 'commonwealth' throughout.
  58. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol II, pg 2.
  59. The Political Ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas, edited w/ introduction by Dino Bigongiari, Hafner Publishing Company, NY, 1953. Subsection titled: Mixed Government pp xxx.
  60. Summa, Part I, II, Q105, a.
  61. Valley of Decision, Sterling Lacy, Dayspring Productions, Inc. Texarkana, TX, 1988, 1992, 1994. pg 48.
  62. Lecture: "Crete in Between: Still the Center of a Wine-Dark Sea" by Louis Ruprecht, Claremont School of Theology at The Third Annual Platsis Symposium, on the Greek Legacy held at University of Michigan, Ann Arbor on Oct. 3, 2004, sponsoring "Crete: A Meeting Place of Cultures". "Crete, of course, is paradigmatically 'mixed place'. But there are many kinds of mixing, many different forms which cultural or technological mixing may take. One type, "syncretism", is a term for the kinds of cultural and religious mixing which is built on the Greek root of this island's name: syn-Crete-ism." from the pamphlet.
  63. "Hitler declared: 'This revolution of ours is the exact counterpart of the French Revolution'" (pg 247) and "Goebbels once said: "Besides, I pay homage to the French Revolution for all the possibilities of life and development that it brought the people. In that sense one could say, if you like, that I am a democrat." (pg 238) as quoted in Liberty or Equality, Erik von Kuenhelt-Leddihn, Christendom Press, Front Royal, Virginia, 1952, 1993. The thesis of his writings is to show that Hitler and his like are part and parcel of the "democracy" movement.
  64. This statement is not explicit but implied in: "It is on record that Spartan soldiers abroad shouted down an unpopular officer; threw stones at a general whose orders they did not approve; in an emergency, put down incompetent leaders and acted for themselves. The Greek Way, Edith Hamilton, W. W. Norton & Co., NY, 1964, 1983; reissued 1993. pg 131
  65. Republic Plato, translated by B. Jowett, M.A., Vintage Books (div of Random House), NY. sec. #435; pg 151.
  66. The Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli, trans. & ed. by Robert M. Adams, W.W. Norton & Co., NY, 1992. pg 96.
  67. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, entry on Plato's Republic, states that the Roman translation of the word is somewhat misleading. see Republic §434 and preceeding and following; for second point see Morgenstern de Platon. Rep. p. 305, as quoted in The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller, Vol. II, pg 193.
  68. Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pg 67.
  69. Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pg 161.
  70. Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pg 183.
  71. Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pp 21-37.
  72. "What little remained lacking in support of the traditional estates was supplied by Bishop Andrewes, who managed the impossible feat of finding the three estates in the Bible. Preaching on a refrain in Judges: "In those days, there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which was good in his own eyes". Andrewes found the three "estates" of captains, judges, and priests in Israel. But the scheme was "defective" until Israel acquired a king, "one over all, ...a common father to all, that may poise and keep them all in equilibrio, that so all the estates may be evenly balanced" (c. 1607). Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pg 110
  73. "Plato, who held that 'the state where neither poverty nor riches exist will have the noblest life'. Plato took much of his philosophy from Sparta. as quoted in Greek Ideals and Modern Life, by Sir R. W. Livingstone, Martin Classical Lectures, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1935. pg 49.
  74. "Georges Dumézil argued that the "tripartition" of the functions of prayer and judgement, war, and toil is an element common on one level or another to all Indo-European societies but to them alone;...Dumézill has pursued trifunctionality only as a stylization or ideology that can be recovered through the residues preserved by the discrete Indo-European peoples." Caesar observed this same trifunctionality among the Celts. It is also observed in the Indian Aryans of the brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors), vaisyas (merchants and craftsmen). Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pp 21-29.
    1. "There is a truth, however, in De Maistre's doctrine that constitutions are generated, or developed, not created de novo, or made all at once." The American Republic, Orestes A. Brownson
  75. John Aylmer in 1559 describes or wishes Tudor England into the Spartan mold. He describes England as a mixed government. as quoted in Dangerous Positions; Mixed Government, the Estates of the Realm, and the Making of the "Answer to the xix propositions", Michael Mendle, University of Alabama Press, 1985. pg 49.
    1. Edward Wortley Montagu places Sparta in the list of ancient republics. He, like John Aylmer, sees Sparta as nearly identical as that of England's constitution (and hence mixed). Referenced in The Spartan Tradition in European Thought, Elizabeth Rawson, Clarendon Paperbacks, Oxford University Press, NY, 1969, 1991. pg 348, 3rd footnote.
    2. "Aylmer's description has received the imprimatur of Geoffrey Elton, who quoted it as a fair statement of Tudor constitutional arrangements in his influential collection, The Tudor Constitution (published 1960). Dangerous Positions, Mendle, pg 49.
    3. NOTE: There was no political philosophy or terminology in Britain until the introduction of the Greek classics. Greek scholars immediately saw a corelation to Sparta and their form of government. The idea of mixed government came from Greek classical texts.
    4. Sir Thomas Smyth, in 1583, titled his work, De Republica Anglorum; the Manner of Government or Policie of the Realme of England, (England is described under Queen Elizabeth I as a republic. Prof. Mendle states that the term "mixed" does not appear in it. The term "mixed" certainly appears in the text: "Now although the governements of common wealthes be thus divided into three, and cutting ech into two, so into sixe: yet you must not take that ye shall finde any common wealth or governement simple, pure and absolute in his sort and kinde, but as wise men have divided for understandinges sake and fantasied iiij. simple bodies which they call elementes, as fire, ayre, water, earth, and in a mans bodie foure complexions or temperatures, as cholericke, sanguine, phlegmatique, and melancolique: not that ye shall finde the one utterly perfect without mixtion of the other, for that nature almost will not suffer, but understanding doth discerne ech nature as in his sinceritie: so seldome or never shall you finde any common wealthe[1] or governement which is absolutely and sincerely made of the one[2] above named, but alwayes mixed with an other, and hath the name of that which is more and overruleth alwayes or for the most part the other.[3]" From an online version of it: De Republica Angolorum, ch. 6.
      1. See also Madison Federalist Papers, #39, where he also records that some people put England as a republic.
    5. ""With the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons sharing the powers of government, the British constitution was a mixture or balance of rule by the one, the few, and the many, just as republican theory prescribed." Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal, editors: Terence Ball and Richard Dagger, 2nd ed, HarperCollins College Publishers, l995. pg 36.
    6. A.H.J. Greenidge, M.A., in A Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, writes that Sparta and Britain had the same form of government: "History has shown that such forms of government (speaking about mixed government) are suited to a commonsense non-idealistic people: the Phoenicians of Carthage, the Dorians of Greece, Romans, and Englishmen have all developed this type of polity" (pg 76); "Besides acknowledged difficulty of the creation of such a system,...so amply illustrated by the history of Sparta, Rome, and England" (ibid).
    7. "It is perhaps worth noting that Burlamqui, also a member of the ruling caste there, had divided mixed constitutions into two sorts and considered Geneva an aristo-democracy, while Sparta (with England) was a limited monarchy." The Spartan Tradition in European Thought, Elizabeth Rawson, Clarendon Paperbacks, Oxford University Press, NY, 1969, 1st issue as Clarendon Paperback, 1991. pg 235, 1st footnote.
    8. "The author (Montesquieu) of De l'esprit des lois was, of course, as famously ambivalent about the English constitution – an anomaly outside of his formal typology, which he could elsewhere describe as a 'republic disguised as a monarchy' – as he was about republics proper." Johnson Kent Wright, "14 The Idea of a Republican Constitution in Old Régime France," Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, ed. Martin Van Gelderen and Quentin Skinner, vol. 1 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002) 293, Questia, 5 Sept. 2007 [1].
    9. In his 1787 book, "Defence of the Constitutions," John Adams used the definition of "republic" in Samuel Johnson's 1755 "Dictionary" ("A government of more than one person"), but in the same book, and in several other writings, Adams made it clear that he thought of the English state as a republic because the executive, though single and called "king," had to obey laws made with the concurrence of the legislature ("the British constitution is nothing more or less than a republic, in which the king is first magistrate. This office being hereditary, and being possessed of such ample and splendid prerogatives, is no objection to the government's being a republic, as long as it is bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." -March 6, 1775).
  76. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol I, pp 32-33.
  77. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol I, pg 34.
  78. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol I, pg 33.
  79. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol I, pg 14.
  80. "But St. Thomas drew his Whig principles in no small measure from Aristotle; or an any rate, as it is perhaps juster to say, he used Aristotle to corrobrate a medieval trend towards constitutionalism already expressed in the purpose of the Magna Carta—the purpose 'that the king is, and shall be, below the law'"; The Politics of Aristotle, Ernest Barker, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, GB, 1946, 1952, pg lxi, quoting History of English Law, Pollack and Maitland, vol. i. pg. 173
  81. Menace of the Herd, Von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, pg 7.
  82. The Echo of Greece, Edith Hamilton, W. W. Norton & Co., NY, 1957. pg 18.
  83. The Echo of Greece, Edith Hamilton, W. W. Norton & Co., NY, 1957. pg 21.
  84. Hellenistic Commentary to the New Testament, ed. by M. Eugene Boring, Klaus Berger, Carsten Colpe, Abingdon Press, Nashville, TN, 1995. pg 57.
  85. "Classical republicanism was, in many ways, the parent of liberalism." Founders and the Classics", Richard, pg 5-6.
  86. Founders and the Classics, Richard, pg 7.
  87. "Discourses on Titus Livius" end of Book I chapter II, The Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli, ed. by Robert M. Adams, pp 94, 97.
  88. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Paul A. Rahe, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1992. Vol. I, pg 63.
  89. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Rahe, University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Vol II, pp 32-37.
  90. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Rahe, University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Vol II.
  91. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Rahe, University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Vol II, specifically, pg 193, generally 184-196.
  92. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Rahe, University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Vol I, pg 5.
  93. The Governments of Europe, Frederic Austin Ogg, The MacMillan Co., NY, 1922. revised, pg 152f.
  94. Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism, J. Salwyn Schapiro, McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY, 1949. pg 331.
  95. Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism, J. Salwyn Schapiro, McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY, 1949. pg 125.
  96. Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism, J. Salwyn Schapiro, McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY, 1949. pg 326.
  97. "Napoleon III. Eine Betrachtung zur Krise der Democratie in Frandreich", Michael Freund, Deutsche Zeitschrift, XLVIII (October, 1934-September, 1935), 181-183, as quoted in Liberalism and the Challenge of Fascism, J. Salwyn Schapiro, McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY, 1949. pg 328.
  98. The Governments of Europe, Frederic Austin Ogg, The MacMillan Co., NY, 1922. pg 367.
  99. "...let us hand them down through the gift of accurate memory for the common possession of those Hellenes who aspire to be Lovers of the Beautiful." "The Contest of Homer and Hesoid", Hesiod, Homeric Hymns, Homerica, trans. by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Loeb Classical Library, Havard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1995. Vol #57, pg 627.
  100. "For in the first place a people exists only when the individuals who form it are held together by a partnership in justice..." De re publica, Cicero, trans. by Clinton Walker Keyes, Loeb Classical Library, 2000. Vol #213, pg 223.
    1. "The senate possessed as much power and influence as the multitude." De re publica, Loeb. Vol #213, pg 226.
    2. "...and when all the power is in the people's hands, even though they excercise it with justice and moderation, yet the resulting equality itself is inequitable, since it allows no distinction of rank." De re publica, Cicero, trans. by Clinton Walker Keyes, Loeb Classical Library, 2000. Vol #213, pg 67.
    3. "The distinction of ranks, which we find existing in the Arcadian towns, may be satisfactorily explained by the opposition between the city, properly so called (polis), and the country villages (demos, komai), which in later times most of the Arcadian cities, ...incorporated with themselves." (Synoecism) The History of the Doric Race, Müller Vol. II pg 68-69.
  101. "[And indeed many of the arguments] cited to prove that a kingdom is a commonwealth, "property of the people", could be applied [with equal justice to an aristocratic government]." 2nd citation is above this on same page "...I cannot see how the name of commonwealth would be any more applicable to the despotism of the multitude." De re publica, Loeb. Vol #213, pg 223.
  102. De re publica, Loeb. Vol #213, pg 65.
  103. "It was after he had adopted this policy that Romulus first discovered and approved the principle which Lycurgus had discovered at Sparta a short time before—that a State can be better governed and guided by the authority of one man, that is by the power of the king, if the influence of the State's most eminent men is joined to the ruler's absolute power." De re publica, Loeb. Vol #213, pg 123-125.
  104. "Deviations from the constitutions mentioned are tyranny corresponding to kingship, oligarchy to aristocracy, and democracy to constitutional government (politeia)..." Politics, Aristotle, trans. Rackman, Loeb Classical Library. Vol. #264. Bk III, v. 4; 1279b 5-10; pg 207.
    1. "...constitutional government (politeia) turns into a democracy..." Politics, Loeb Classical Library. Vol. #264. Bk. V vii, 7; 1308b 5-15; pg 425.
  105. "Every state is as we see a sort of partnership (κονωνίαν), and every partnership is formed with a view to some good..." Politics, Loeb Classical Library. Vol. #264. Bk I. first sentence, pg 3.
    1. "For in the first place a people exists only when the individuals who form it are held together by a partnership in justice." De re publica, Cicero, trans. by Clinton Walker Keyes, Loeb Classical Library. Vol. #213. pg 223.
  106. The Republican Tradition in Europe, H. A. L. Fisher, Methuen & Co., LTD., London, 1911. pg 62.
  107. "Introduction" by Paul Shorey, Plato The Republic, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1st print 1930, 1999. Vol. 237.
    1. Plato's Republic; §431e, §433, §435
    2. Plato talks of keeping the classes seperate whereas they seek to combine creating one class of all. Republic, Jowett translation. §434; paperback 149.
  108. Politics, Loeb Classical Library, Bk VII ix 1f; 1329b; pg 579f.
  109. Pericles of Athens and The Birth of Democracy, Donald Kagan, Touchstone, NY, 1991. pg 14-15 "By later standards, theirs was a severly limited democracy in which the lower classes deferred to their betters".
  110. The History of the Doric Race, Müller Vol. II pg 8.
  111. Not only the everyday men but the thinkers and the artists all kept a firm hold on reality." Echo of Greece, Edith Hamilton, pg18.
    1. "Reality was pleasant to the Greeks." Echo of Greece, Edith Hamilton, pg 187.
    2. "The Greeks were pre-eminently realists." The Greek Way, Edith Hamilton, pg 67.
    3. "...the Greeks did not only face facts, they had not even a desire to escape from them." The Greek Way, Edith Hamilton, pg 68
  112. The Constitution of Athens, Psuedo-Xenophon, "Xenophon Scripta Minora", Loeb Classical Library, Vol. #183. Bk I, 10; pg 481.
  113. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol II, pg 396.
  114. The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, Müller 2nd ed. rev. 1839. Vol II, pg 38-39.
    1. "The Helots wore the leathern cap with a broad band, and covering of sheep's skin,..."
    2. "...the Helots could not lay aside this dress at pleasure; indeed, a young Spartan could not assume the dress of an older man."
    3. "...in Sparta the several orders were characterized by external differences."
  115. "It is perhaps worth noting that Burlamqui, also a member of the ruling caste there, had divided mixed constitutions into two sorts and considered Geneva an aristo-democracy, while Sparta (with England) was a limited monarchy." The Spartan Tradition in European Thought, Elizabeth Rawson, Clarendon Paperbacks, Oxford University Press, NY, 1969, 1st issue as Clarendon Paperback, 1991. pg 235, 1st footnote.
    1. There is a book with that title: Aristodemocracy, From the Great War back to Moses, Christ and Plato, An essay, Sir Charles Waldstein, Longmans, Green and Co., NY, 1917.
  116. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Rahe, Vol. III, pgs 62, 63, 73, 159, 168, 191, 200-3, 207, 235, 331 #20.
  117. Republics; Ancient and Modern, Rahe, Vol. III, pg 235.
  118. "...then, why the Revolutionary War was percieved by many at the time to be a war between Presbyterians and Episcopalians." from website: http://occidentalimperium.blogspot.com/2006/08/kinism-and-propositional-christendom.html#comments
    1. "One Tory clergyman, William Jones, invoked the Puritan legacy by labeling the conflict "a Presbyterian War". fr "Navigating the Age of Revolution" by William Anthony Hay, (a book review), in "The American Conservative" magazine Sept 11, 2006.
  119. "Crito", Plato Collected Dialogues of Plato" edited by Edith Hamilton, Bollingen Series LXXI, Princeton University Press, 1961. Crito, 52e; pg 38
  120. "Pirates of the Mediterranean" by Robert Harris, published in The New York Times, September 30, 2006. Note: Robert Harris is the author of the book Imperium: A Novel of Ancient Rome. link to article
  121. "In all the republics of antiquity the government was divided between a senate and a popular assembly; and in cases where a king stood at the head of affairs, as at Sparta, the king had little more than the executive." Article by Leonhard Schmitz, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Rector of the High School of Edinburgh, of William Smith (editor), D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. on pp 1016‑1022
  122. Republic, Plato, trans. B. Jowett, M.A., Vintage Books div. of Random House, NY. §555; pg 308.
  123. From the website: Sparta Revisited pg 1 authored by Helena Schrader, PH.D, with degrees in history and diplomacy.
  124. Menace of the Herd, Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Bruce Publishing Co., 1943. p 2
  125. Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, Penquin Books, 1972, pg 42.
    1. Appian, BC i.29 ff; MRR I, 575; GC, 106
  126. "In the same way, Machiavelli described any State that was not a monarchy as a republic, a polemical definition that has remained to this day." Imperium, Francis Parker Yockey, pg 134.
  127. The Roman Law Library, by Y. Lassard and A. Koptev. English section, Laws of the Kings, Romulus, #3
  128. Rahe, Paul A., What the 20th Century Can Teach the 21st, Claremont Review of Books, Claremont Institute, Winter 2001.
  129. Peacock, Matthew, "Introduction to New Edition", Livy, The Early History of Rome, Books I-V of the Ab Urbe Condita, trans. B. O. Foster, Intro. by Matthew Peacock, Barnes&Noble Library, NY, 2005. pg xiii.
  130. "The modern republic originated in and draws its principles from modern political philosophy. The shift started with Niccolo Machiavelli's ( 1469-1527) rejection of the classical understanding of virtue and justice." Shafritz, Jay M., Ed., International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration: R-Z, Volume: 4. Publisher: Westview Press. Place of Publication: Boulder, CO. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 1965.
  131. Burrowes, Carl Patrick, "Black Christian Republicanism: A Southern Ideology in Early Liberia, 1822 to 1847", The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 86, 2001.
  132. Olive, "Niccolo Machiavelli's Definition of Democracy Nov 13, 2006, published @ Socyberty.com.
  133. Quentin Skinner, "The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty", in Machiavelli and Republicanism, ed. Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner, and Maurizio Viroli (Cambridge, 1990), 309 as quoted by Gary Hart, Restoration of the Republic: The Jeffersonian Ideal in 21st-Century America, Oxford University Press, 2002.
  134. "And the cause of this is that they define liberty wrongly (for there are two things that are thought to be defining features of democracy, the sovereignty of the majority and liberty); for justice is supposed to be equality {ed. note; doing away with the caste system}, and equality the sovereignty of whatever may have been decided by the multitude {ed. note; General will}, and liberty doing just what one likes." Aristotle, Politics, trans. by H. Rackham, Loeb. Bk V vii 22; 1310a 25; pg 437.
  135. "...for appetite is in its nature unlimited, and the majority of mankind live for the satisfaction of appetite." Aristotle, Politics, trans. by H. Rackham, Loeb. Bk II iv 11-12; 1207b; pg 119.
  136. "Masonic influences started the (American Revolutionary) war, and Masonic connections tipped the balance toward the Revolutionary side. When the war was finally over, Masonry played the single most important role in creating the new nation." Steven Sora, Secret Societies of America's Elite, From the Knights Templar to Skull and Bones, Destiny Books, Rochester, Vermont, 2003. pg 99.
  137. W. Lindsay Wheeler, "The Confusing State of Sparta", SPARTA, Journal of Ancient Sparta and Greek History. Online article.

Appendixes

Extracts from classical texts

Appendix 1

Aristotle's Politics The first thing to notice is that in the Politics, Aristotle does not lead off with Athens. In the discussion of "politea", it leads off with Krete, then Sparta, then Carthage and then Solonic Athens.

  • "And the whole constitution is intended, it is true to be neither a democracy nor an oligarchy, but the form intermediate between them which is termed a republic, for the government is constituted from the class that bears arms. Loeb, pg 105; §1265b 25; II, iii,9.
  • "As for Solon, he is considered by some people to have been a good lawgiver, as having put an end to oligarchy when it was too unqualified and having liberated the people from slavery and established our traditional democracy with a skillful blending of the constitution: the council on the Areopagus being an oligarchic element, the elective magistracies aristocratic and the law-courts democratic". Loeb, pg 165; §1273b 35; II, ix, 2.
  • Right below this is: "...Solon seems merely to have abstained from destroying institutions that existed already, he does appear to have founded the democracy by constituting the jurycourts from all the citizens." (This means that the future democracy grew out of the jury courts that grew too strong.) ibid.
  • "For as the law-court grew strong, men courted favor with the people as with a tyrant, and so brought the constitution to the present democracy". ibid.
  • "...in this manner finally the successive leaders of the people led them on by growing stages to the present democracy. Loeb pg 167; §1274a 10; II, x, 3-4.
  • "But this does not seem to have come about in accordance with the intention of Solon, but rather as a result of accident (for the common people...became proud and adopted bad men as popular leaders when the respectable classes opposed their policy)...ibid.
  • "Deviations from the constitutions mentioned are tyranny corresponding to kingship, oligarchy to aristocray, and democracy to consititutional government (the Greek word is "politeia"); for tyranny is monarchy ruling in the favor of the monarchy (or one in charge); oligarchy government in the interest of the rich, democracy government in the interest of the poor; and none of these forms governs with regard to the profit of the community." Loeb 207; §1279b 5-10; III, v, 4. Later on, he calls democracy "the rule of the poor".

Appendix 2

Aristotle's Athenian Constitution
Now remember, this was not extant until the 1890's. No one, Machiavelli, The Founding Fathers, John Aylmer, Rene Descarte, Montaigne, John Locke or any others had the Athenian Constitution.

  • "The Council of Areopagus was the guardian of the laws, and kept watch on the magistrates to make them govern in accordance with the laws." Loeb, 21; iv 2-4.
  • "These reforms made the constitution much more democratic than that of Solon; for it had come about that the tyranny had obliterated the laws of Solon by disuse, and Cleisthenes aiming at the multitude had instituted other new ones, including the enactment of the law about ostracism." Loeb pg 67; xxii 1.
  • "At this date, therefore, the state had advanced to this point, growing by slow stages with the growth of democracy;..." Loeb pg 71; xxii, 1.
  • "But as the population increased, Ephialtes...having become the head of the People and having the reputation of being incorruptable and just in reagard to the constitution, attacked the Council. First he made away with many of the Areopagites by bringing legal proceedings against them...he stripped the Council of all its added powers which made it the safeguard of the constitution..." Loeb pg 75; xxv 1-2.
  • "In this way the Council of the Areopagites was deprived of the superintendence of affairs. After this there came about an increased relaxation of the constitution, due to the eagerness of those who were the leaders of the People." Loeb pg 77; xxvi 1.

Appendix 3

Cicero's De re publica
This work was not extant until 1820.

  • Scipio: "You understand, then, that not even a State which is entirely in the control of a faction can truly be called a commonwealth? (Laelius: yes) Vol #213, pg 221.
  • Laelius: There is no government to which I should more quickly deny the title of commonwealth than one in which everything is subject to the power of the multitude....I cannot see how the name of commonwealth would be any more applicable to the despotism of the multitude." Vol #213, pg 221-223.

Extracts from Renaissance texts

Appendix 4

This excerpt is important for understanding of the transformation of the word 'republic'. This excerpt is an example of revolution within the form.

  • "He who desires or wishes to reform the condition of a city and wishes that it be accepted and that it be able to maintain itself to everyone's satisfaction is forced to retain at least the shadow of ancient modes so that it might seem to the people that order has not changed—though, in fact, the new orders are completely alien to those of the past. For the universality of men feed as much on appearance as on reality: indeed, in many cases, they are moved more by the things which seem than by those which are....And this much should be observed by all who wish to eliminate an ancient way of life (un antico vivere) in a city and reduce it to a new and free way of life (ridurla a uno vivere nuovo e libero): one ought, since new things alter the minds of men, tosee to it that these alterations retain as much as the ancient as possible; and if the magistrates change from those of old in number, authority, and term of office, they ought at least retain the name." Niccolo Machiavelli as quoted in Republics Ancient and Modern, Paul A. Rahe, University of North Carolina Press. Vol II, pg 291.

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Bibliography

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